bab 2

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

            This chapter involves the definition of  speaking, teaching speaking, types of speaking interaction, the characteristics of spoken language, problem with speaking activity, successfully speaking activity, the concept of PPP method and previous study.

2.1 Speaking

            Speaking is the skill that has to be mastered by students in learning English because speaking  is a productive skill of language, in which, the process of saying words to deliver discourse occurs.

            Kenneth (1976:333) said that speaking is a productive skill. As such, its development is undertaken after the receptive skill of listening comprehension, and perhaps of reading, and is always somewhat behind that of the receptive skill. How far the productive skill lags behind the receptive depends upon the learner, how far he has advanced in his language learning, and the linguistic complexity of the material. Learning to speak is obviously more difficult than learning to understand the spoken language. More effort is required on the part of the students, and more concern for sequential arrangement of activities is required on the part of the teacher. The entire process covers a greater period of time to develop than does listening comprehension and is more taxing on the students’ energies.

Speaking.

            According to Nunan (1989:40) said that in terms of oral communication, one needs to learn when it is appropriate to speak, what it is appropriate to speak about, to whom it is permissible to speak, in which circumstances, how to gain the right to speak, how and when to change the topic, how and when to invite someone else to speak and soon.

Based on the statement above, the researcher make the simple definition that speaking is process of creating words to get and give information to other person by communicating so that someone understands what we mean.  

2.2  Teaching Speaking

            Students often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of language learning, but speaking is also a crucial part of the language learning process. Especially related to speech. Kenneth (1976:332) said that speech is an effective-social process as well as a cognitive one. The origin of the thoughts, the direction they take, the situation in which they are uttered, and the person to whom they are spoken are the result of both affective-social and cognitive variables.

            Another important thing in teaching speaking is students’ confidence. Teachers should give motivation and have speaking strategies that can help themselves expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence. These instructors help students learn to speak so that the students can use speaking to learn.

a.      Using minimal responses

Language learners who lack confidence in their ability to participate successfully in oral interaction often listen in silence while others do the talking. One way to encourage such learners to begin to participate is to help them build up a stock of minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges. Such responses can be especially useful for beginners.

Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases that conversation participants use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is saying. Having a stock of such responses enables a learner to focus on what the other participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan a response.

b.      Recognizing scripts

Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges -- a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, and other functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow patterns or scripts. So do the transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.

Instructors can help students develop speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will need to say in response. Through interactive activities, instructors can give students practice in managing and varying the language that different scripts contain.

c.       Using language to talk about language

Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they do not understand another speaker or when they realize that a conversation partner has not understood them. Instructors can help students overcome this reticence by assuring them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification can occur in any type of interaction, whatever the participants' language skill levels. Instructors can also give students strategies and phrases to use for clarification and comprehension check.

By encouraging students to use clarification phrases in class when misunderstanding occurs, and by responding positively when they do, instructors can create an authentic practice environment within the classroom itself. As they develop control of various clarification strategies, students will gain confidence in their ability to manage the various communication situations that they may encounter outside the classroom.

2.3 Types of Speaking Interaction

Penny in Chotimah (2009:6) noted the types of speaking interaction, which tend to neglected. They are long turn, short turn, interaction turn, emotional and relationship situation.

1. Long Turn

Some activities in this type of speaking are telling story, describing someone or thing, giving opinion, recounting the plot of the film or novel, etc. this speaking type is needed for advanced or academic students who have to speak for long turn to express their idea.

2. Short Turn

This type consists of one or two utterances training in producing only short turns will not automatically yield

3. Interaction Talk

In interaction talk students are trained to be able to greet someone, say good bye, ask or give apology, give permission, thank, etc. However, it is also used to learn culture. Students use language to communicate with other though in different culture or language, of course the use of interaction greatly depends on cultural convention as knowing of the words of the language.

2.4 The Characteritics of Spoken Language

Speaking is the skill that students will be judged upon most in real-life situation. It is an important part of everyday interaction and most often the first impression of a person is based on his/her ability to speak fluently comprehensibly. Therefore, as teachers, we have a responsibility to prepare the students as much as possible to be able to speak in English in the real world outside the classroom and testing room.

Speaking is a skill, just like swimming, driving a car, or playing games. Too often, in the traditional classroom, the learning of English has been relegated to linguistic knowledge only, knowledge of vocabulary and grammar rules, with little or no attention paid to practicing language skills. How can we tell the difference between knowledge and skill? Bygate (1987) pointed out one “fundamental difference is that both can be understood and memorized, but only a skill can be imitated and practiced”.

One of the characteristics of speech in everyday life is that speech is spontaneous. That is, in most situations, people do not plan ahead of time what they are going to say. Only in more formal situation, such as when a person has been asked to give a speech, do people plan and organize their speech. The fact that speech is spontaneous means that it is full of false starts, repetitions, incomplete sentences, and short phrases. So, should we expect the students to produce complete sentence in the language classroom? Bygate (1987) points out that teacher may be requiring their students to do more forward thinking and planning than native speakers do in real life.

Another aspect of producing spoken language is the time-constraint. The students must be able to produce unplanned utterances in real time; otherwise, people will not have the patience to listen to them.

2.5 Problems with Speaking Activities

The gain of speaking is that students can use the language as well as possible. However, in the learning process, some problems are found. Penny in Wahyuni (2008:12) explained the problem with speaking activities. Those problems are elaborated as follow:

• Nothing to say

In learning foreign language, usually learners do not have any idea in their mind because they do not think in English but in their own language. It happened because they feel that they should speak the language which is strange for them.

• Inhibition

Learning speaking is not much different from learning writing and reading. Speaking needs some level of real-time exposure to an audience. Learners often inhibited of making mistakes and fear of criticism

• Mother-tongue use

When learners are discussing some problems usually they share with others by using their mother tongue, not the target language. It is because they feel unnatural to speak in foreign language.

• Low participation

It happens because one student / participant only has a limited time to speak. Some students are dominant. While others speak very little or cannot express their idea optimally in the discussion

2.6 Successful Speaking Activity

Students are successful in learning speaking when they can use the language in daily common both in and out the school. Ur  in Chotimah (1996) has indicated some characteristics of successful speaking activity:

1.             Maximum Foreign Talk

In successful speaking tasks, the students talk a lot in the foreign language. One common problem  in speaking activities is that students often produce one or two simple utterances in the foreign language and spend the rest of the time chatting in their native language. Another common problem is that the teacher talks too much of the time, thus taking away valuable practice time from the students.

2.                     Even Participation

Teacher should control everyone in the classroom. Each student has the same chance to speak in the classroom. When necessary the teacher may interfere to guarantee equal opportunities for students of different levels.

3.                     High Motivation

Research has shown that motivation is one of the most important variables in successful language learning. Teachers can do a lot to increase and maintain the motivation of students by the types of tasks that they organize in class. Students are eager to speak, when the topic is interesting or there is a clear objective that must be reached. Again great care should be taken to make sure the task in line with the students’ ability to deal with the task. If the task is too easy, the students may think it is childish and thus lose interest.

4.                     Right Language Level

In a successful speaking task, the language is at the right level. The task must be designed so that students can complete the task successfully with the language that they have. If the students lack too much vocabulary, the task will become frustrating and the students are likely to give up or revert back to the native language.

Teachers talking time must be kept to a minimum in the ESL classroom, ensuring that students have the opportunity to speak as often as possible. Allocating as much time as possible to students talking can help creating the best environment for oral activities. Piccolo (2010) added that other characteristics of successful speaking activities include:

·      Making sure the student participation is not dominated by a few talkative students

·      Making sure the student want to speak because they interested in the topic

·      Making sure the student have something relevant to say

·      Making sure the student can be understood by everyone

·      Making sure that there are not frequent interruptions while students are speaking.

2.7 The Concept of PPP Method

David (2008) said that the PPP approach is relatively straight forward, and structured enough to be easily understood by both students and new or emerging teachers.  It is a good place to start in terms of applying good communicative language teaching in the classroom. It is proposed considerably for the very characteristic that makes it the easiest method for 'beginner' teachers, that is, that it is far too teacher-orientated and over controlled.

A variation on audio-lingualism in British-based teaching and elsewhere, is the procedure most often referred to as PPP, which stand for Presentation, Practice and Production (Harmer:1991)

the teacher presents the new word, an event which involves the presentation of pronunciation and spelling, all in context. Presentation represents the introduction to a lesson, and necessarily requires the creation of a realistic (or realistic-feeling) "situation" requiring the target language to be learned.  This can be achieved through using pictures, dialogs, imagination or actual "classroom situations".  The teacher checks to see that the students understand the nature of the situation, then builds the "concept" underlying the language to be learned using small chunks of language that the students already know.  Having understood the concept, students are then given the language "model" and angage in choral drills to learn statement, answer and question forms for the target language.  This is a very teacher-orientated stage where error correction is important.

The teacher allows the students to practice the material (new words or sentences) in a controlled setting, making sure the student has understood it properly. Practice usually begins with what is termed "mechanical practice" - open and closed pairwork.  Students gradually move into more "communicative practice" involving procedures like information gap activities, dialog creation and controlled roleplays.  Practice is seen as the frequency device to create familiarity and confidence with the new language, and a measuring stick for accuracy.  The teacher still directs and corrects at this stage, but the classroom is beginning to become more learner-centered.

In the production stage, where there is less-controlled practice and an informal assessment of learning whereby the students get chance to use the new word in an original way, to relate it to their knowledge and experiences. Production is seen as the culmination of the language learning process, whereby the learners have started to become independent users of the language rather than students of the language.  The teacher's role here is to somehow facilitate a realistic situation or activity where the students instinctively feel the need to actively apply the language they have been practicing.  The teacher does not correct or become involved unless students directly appeal to him/her to do so.

2.7 Previous Study

Chotimah (2009) conducted a research entitled “Improving Speaking Competence By Using PPP (Presentation, Practice and Production) of First Grade At SMP NU Hasanuddin Pujiharjo-Malang”. The statement of problem is “How can presentation, Practice and Production improve speaking competence of the first grade students at SMP NU Hasanuddin Pujiharjo-Malang?”. In her research carried out to find out whether teaching speaking by using PPP can improve the students’ speaking competence. The data showed that the result of the implementation PPP has significantly improved students’ speaking competence. It can be seen from the result of the students score. The rates students score before the implementation of PPP was 5, 4. After the implementation PPP, the students’ rates score was 67, 52 in the cycle I, and increase become 74, 91 in cycle II.